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Kashrut Overview
Kashrut or Kashruth or "keeping kosher" is the name of the Jewish dietary laws. Food in accord with halakha (Jewish law) is termed kosher in English, from the Hebrew term kasher, meaning "fit" (in this context, fit for consumption by observant Jews).
Food not in accord with Jewish law is termed treifah or treif ("torn"); the term originally referred to animals (from a kosher species such as cattle or sheep) which had been either incorrectly slaughtered or mortally wounded by wild beasts and therefore were not fit for human consumption. Among Sephardim, it typically only refers to meat that is not kosher.
The basic laws of kashrut are in the Torah's Book of Leviticus, with their details set down in the oral law (the Mishnah and the Talmud) and codified by the Shulkhan Arukh and later rabbinical authorities. Many varied reasons have been offered for these laws, ranging from philosophical and ritualistic, to practical and hygenic; see below for examples and explanations.
The word kosher has been borrowed by many languages. In English as slang, it generally means legitimate, acceptable, permissible, genuine or authentic.
Meat
Modern halakha (Jewish law) on kashrut classifies the flesh of both mammals and birds as "meat"; fish are considered to be pareve (neither meat nor dairy).
The dietary laws are given in Leviticus 11: "And the LORD spoke to Moses and to Aaron, saying: "speak to the children of Israel, saying, 'These are the living things which you may eat among all the animals that are on the earth.'" (Leviticus 11:1–11:2).
Leviticus 11:3 sets down that Jews may eat all animals (some translations use "beasts") that have cloven hooves and chew their cud, and Leviticus 11:4 explicitly prohibited the consumption of animals that do not have these characteristics, designating them "unclean to you." Four mammals are specifically prohibited:
The camel, because it chews its cud but does not have cloven hooves (Leviticus 11:4);
The hyrax, because it chews its cud but does not have cloven hooves (Leviticus 11:5);
The hare, because it chews its cud but does not have cloven hooves (Leviticus 11:6);
The pig, because it has cloven hooves but does not chew its cud (Leviticus 11:7);
The identification of the above animals and other issues relating to this topic is the subject of a book by Natan Slifkin.
Leviticus 11:8 commands the Jews that "of their flesh you shall not eat, and of their carcass you shall not touch." The following verse, Leviticus 11:9, goes on to address seafood.
All kosher mammals, therefore, are even-toed ungulates and herbivores in the suborder Ruminantia, including several common domesticated animals and many wild animals. Kosher animals include the following:
Bovines (family Bovidae) (cattle (cows), goats, sheep, and antelope)
Musk deer (family Moschidae)
Deer (family Cervidae)
Giraffes and okapis (family Giraffidae)
Pronghorns (family Antilocapridae)
Birds
Kosher birds include: duck (domestic), goose (domestic), chicken, capon (castrated rooster), turkey, guinea fowl and many others. As a general principle, scavenging birds such as vultures and birds of prey such as hawks and eagles (which will eat carrion when they find it) are not considered kosher, while other birds generally are. Leviticus outlines the non-kosher birds and the rest are all kosher; in practice, however, the identities of the birds listed as non-kosher are not all known, so religious authorities have restricted consumption to specific birds which Jews have traditionally eaten. Thus birds such as songbirds, which are consumed as delicacies in many societies, are not generally eaten although they might theoretically be Kosher.
Kosher slaughter and preparation
Jewish law states that kosher mammals and birds must be slaughtered according to a strict set of guidelines, the slaughter (shechita) being designed to minimize the pain inflicted. This necessarily eliminates the practice of hunting wild game for food, unless it can be captured alive and ritually slaughtered.
A professional slaughterer, or shochet, using a large razor-sharp knife with absolutely no irregularities, nicks or dents, makes a single cut across the throat to a precise depth, severing both carotid arteries, both jugular veins, both Vagus nerves, the trachea and the esophagus, no higher than the epiglottis and no lower than where cilia begin inside the trachea, causing instantaneous loss of blood flow to the brain and death in a few seconds. Any variation from this exact procedure could cause unnecessary suffering; therefore, if the knife catches even for a split second or is found afterward to have developed any irregularities, or the depth of cut is too deep or shallow, the carcass is not kosher (nevelah) and is sold as regular meat to the general public. The shochet must be not only rigorously trained in this procedure, but also a pious Jew of good character who observes the Sabbath, and who remains cognizant that these are God's creatures who are sacrificing their lives for the good of himself and his community and should not be allowed to suffer. In smaller communities, the shochet is often the town rabbi or the rabbi of one of the local synagogues; large factories which produce Kosher meat have professional full time shochets on staff.
Once killed, the animal is opened to determine whether there are any of seventy different irregularities or growths on its internal organs, which would render the animal non-kosher. The term "Glatt" kosher (although it is often used colloquially to mean "strictly kosher") literally means "smooth", and properly refers to meat where the lungs have absolutely no adhesions (i.e. scars from previous inflammation).
Large blood vessels must be removed, and all blood must be removed from the meat, as Jewish law prohibits the consumption of the blood of any animal. This is most commonly done by soaking and salting, but also can be done by broiling. An interesting fact, little-known outside of Jewish communities, is that the hindquarters of a mammal are not kosher unless the sciatic nerve and the fat surrounding it are removed (Genesis 32, last verse). This is a very time-consuming process demanding a great deal of special training, and is rarely done outside Israel, where there is a greater demand for kosher meat, since all meat sold in Jewish towns is required to be kosher by law. When it is not done, the hindquarters of the animal are sold for non-kosher meat.
Dairy
Milk and milk-derived products derived from kosher animals are always kosher. All milk from cows, goats, and sheep is kosher. In the past, when milk from cows was more expensive, adulteration with camel milk or horse milk was a serious issue; today this is not considered a practical concern in the USA or in most western countries. As such, most Modern Orthodox rabbis and all Conservative rabbis hold that FDA supervision is sufficient for milk and dairy products to be considered automatically kosher. However, where it is available, many Orthodox Jews feel it is incumbent upon them to eliminate all doubt by using only "Cholov Yisroel" milk and dairy products; this label means that the milk has been under constant rabbinical supervision from milking to bottling, to make sure that it is not admixed with the milk of a non-kosher animal.
Breast milk is considered pareve, and milk in a cow's udder at the time of slaughter is also considered pareve.
Cheese
Cheese is, of course, considered a dairy product. Hard cheeses, however, are made from milk and rennet, an animal product, and the kashrut of such cheeses is a matter of debate in the religious Jewish community.
Rennet is the enzyme used to turn milk into curds and whey; most forms of rennet derive from the lining of the stomach of an animal. Kosher rennet may be made from the stomachs of kosher animals slaughtered in conformance with the laws of kashrut, or may be made from vegetable or microbial sources. The Mishna and Talmud (in Avodah Zarah and Hullin) state that cheese made with rennet derived from a non-kosher animal is non-kosher. Orthodox authorities follow this ruling, and hold that rennet is a "d'var ha'ma'amid", an ingredient which changes the food so significantly that its presence cannot be considered negligible, so that even tiny amounts make the food it is added to non-kosher. Conservative authorities classify rennet as something that has changed so much from its original form that it is a "d'var chadash", "something new", and thus is no longer non-kosher. In practice Orthodox and some Conservative Jews eat only cheese made with kosher rennet, while other Conservative Jews follow the Conservative ruling and eat any hard cheese.
No mixing of meat and dairy
Milk products and meat products may not be eaten together in the same meal, much less cooked together. Jewish law thus mandates a set of 'fence' laws that prevent this from happening; cooking meat and milk together is prohibited, even if it is not eaten, eating milk and meat together is prohibited even if they are not cooked together, and no benefit can be attained from such activity; for instance, one cannot even serve meat and milk together to an animal. Note that in most current forms of Judaism (but not among all Karaites, Ethiopian Jews and some Persian Jewish communities), this even applies to the flesh of birds, not just mammals. Most observant Jewish homes maintain two sets of silverware, cookware, cups, and dishes. One is for milk (Yiddish milchig, Hebrew halavi) dishes, and one is for meat (Yiddish fleishig or fleishedik, Hebrew basari) dishes. This prevents any trace of meat or dairy from being accidentally mixed. (Foods that contain neither milk nor meat are considered "neutral" -- Yiddish pareve, modern Hebrew parve.)
Jewish law considers glass (and some say Pyrex) to be non-absorbent; thus, one could use just a single set of glass plates and dishes. In practice, this is rarely done amongst Ashkenazi Jews not only because of the cost, but also because it is held that it would weaken the traditional system of kashrut observance. However, it is common within most religiously observant households to allow drinking glasses to be used for both dairy and meat meals, as long as they are thoroughly washed. Amongst Sephardim, glass dishes are often used for both milk and meat — including for hot food.
Most views hold that there is a 20 minute wait period needed to have meat soon after eating dairy, Some hold to 60 minutes. However, three distinct customs are observed regarding how long it is necessary to wait after eating meat before eating dairy foods again; most Litvak communities wait six hours, but many Galitzianers and German Jews wait only three hours, and Dutch Jews only 55 minutes.
Pareve
All foods which do not fall into the categories of meat or dairy are considered pareve, and can be consumed freely with either meat or dairy. This includes all fruits and vegetables and foods derived exclusively from such sources; salt and other non-organic foodstuffs. Fish is considered pareve, and may be eaten directly before or after both meat and milk.
Produce
Various laws apply to fruits, vegetables and produce. Most of these only apply to the produce of the Land of Israel:
- Orlah - fruits, harvested from a tree, less than three years after its planting (Mishnah tractate Orlah 3:9, Shulchan Arukh Yoreh De'ah 294:9-10)
Various tithes (Shulchan Aruch ibid ch. 391-393):
- Terumah - originally given to the Kohen (priestly caste)
- Ma'aser Rishon - originally given to the Levites
- Ma'aser Sheni - orinigally consumed in Jerusalem or given to the poor (in specific years)
- Shemitta - produce from each seventh year (Mishna tractate Shevi'it and Maimonides Hilchot Shevi'it ve-Yovel)
- Challah - bread that needs to have a priestly gift removed (Mishna tractate Challah, Shulchan Aruch ibid 322-330)
All fresh fruits and vegetables are kosher in principle. Jewish law requires that they be carefully checked and cleaned to make sure that there are no insects on them, as insects are not kosher (except certain Orthoptera, see above). In the last century emphasis on this aspect has increased, especially in the Haredi Jewish community. Many Haredim avoid certain vegetables, such as broccoli, because they may be infested and exceedingly hard to clean. Responding to this issue, some companies now sell thoroughly washed and inspected produce for those who do not wish to do it themselves, even going to the trouble of filtering the wash water to ensure that it carries no microscopic creatures (see discussion of such animals in tap water, above).
There are actually some restrictions on consumption of produce. The fruit of a tree for the first three years cannot be consumed (the law of orlah). For crops grown in the Holy Land, tithes must be taken and allocated according to the precepts of the Bible, otherwise the entire crop is not considered Kosher.
Canned and frozen foods
Most canned and frozen foods are usually permissible since manufacturers add only water and spices during the packaging process. Sometimes, however, fruits or vegetables are prepared with milk products or with non-kosher ingredients such as non-kosher meat broth. Orthodox Judaism thus holds that canned and frozen goods should generally not be consumed unless there is a hechsher (mark of rabbinical certification of kashrut) on the product.
Grains and cereals
Unprocessed grains and cereals are kosher. Processed items (e.g. dry cereals, baked goods) may contain small quantities of non-kosher ingredients; therefore Orthodox Judaism holds that these goods should generally not be consumed unless there is a hechsher (mark of rabbinical certification of kashrut) on the product.
Eggs
Eggs from kosher birds are kosher; they are also considered pareve (neutral, neither milk nor meat). Traditionally, eggs are examined in a glass cup to ascertain that they contain no blood. Eggs containing blood in the white may be used according to Sephardi halakha if the blood can be removed, but the egg must be discarded if any blood is found on the yolk. Ashkenazim generally do not distinguish between blood in the white or on the yolk. Partially-formed eggs found inside slaughtered birds may be eaten, but they must undergo the same process of blood removal as the animal, and these eggs are considered to be fleishig (status of meat) in Ashkenazi Judaism.
Seafood
In Leviticus 11:9, seafood ("all that are in the waters") is addressed. As for mammals, two criteria are given: whatever "in the waters, in the seas, and in the rivers" and has "fins and scales" may be eaten. The following verse, Leviticus 11:10, says that "all that move in the waters" and "have not fins and scales" are "an abomination," and Leviticus 11:11 commands the Israelites to "of their flesh not eat" and "of their carcasses you shall hold abomination." Rabbinical tradition holds that "fins" have to be translucent and that "scales" must be "easily detachable" (i.e., they can be removed without ripping the skin...not that tearing the skin is prohibited, but that it must be possible to remove the scales without ripping the skin: as a general principle, this means that "permitted" fish must have either ctenoid or cycloid scales, although the mere fact that a fish has only these types of scales is a consequence, not a prerequisite for "permittedness").
Examples of unkosher water creatures include shark, catfish, octopus, squid, jellyfish, and eels. All shellfish, such as clams, oysters, crab, lobster, and shrimp are not kosher. All sea mammals, such as dolphins, whales, and seals are also not kosher.
Seaweed and other sea plant life are kosher, although many of these plants are often infested with non-kosher animals. Thus, nori is generally agreed upon as requiring a hechsher, to avoid the problem of eating seahorses. There are, however, some authorities who allow for checking each piece of unsupervised nori with a light box, but in practice, this is time consuming and often yields very few suitable pieces.
The kashrut of swordfish and sturgeon are controversial, as they have scales as young fish, but lose them later in life. Orthodox authorities have ruled that these fish are not kosher.
Fish is not considered to be meat, but rather neutral or 'pareve'; however, the laws of kashrut require fish and meat to be consumed separately. Unlike the separation between milk and meat, a separate set of dishes is not required, but dishes must be washed in between. Thus at a Sabbath meal, where traditionally there is a fish course and a meat course, there will always be a separate fish fork and fish plate, to avoid having the inconvenience of rinsing mid-meal. The Beth Yosef also forbids eating fish with dairy products; though most authorities attribute this to a printing error, some (particularly Sephardi Jews from Syria) follow this ruling.
Gelatin
A controversial topic is the status of gelatin. True gelatin consists of denatured proteins, and usually comes from the processed hides or bones of animals. If the source of gelatin is a kosher animal that was properly slaughtered according to Jewish law, or a kosher fish, then such gelatin is considered kosher by all Jews.
Another issue with gelatin is whether it is pareve ('neutral'). Kosher gelatin made from kosher fish is pareve. A kosher pareve 'gelatin' made from vegetable gums such as carrageenan combined with food starch from tapioca (which is also suitable for vegans) is commercially available in supermarkets which have substantial Kosher food sections. It does behave differently than protein-based gelatin, however, and cannot always be substituted directly for animal gelatin without modification of the recipe. Other gelatin-like materials available include combinations of carrageenan and other vegetable gums, such as guar gum, locust-bean gum, xanthan gum, gum acacia, and agar, chemically modified food starch, and chemically modified pectins. Recently, such products have come to be used in prepackaged gelled fruit products, where animal-based gelatin was previously used.
All other gelatin is usually considered treif (non-kosher). However, a few prominent rabbinic authorities have noted that gelatin undergoes such extensive processing and chemical changes that it no longer has the status of meat, and as such may be considered pareve and kosher. Virtually no American Kashrut authorities, nor any Israeli Mehadrin (strict) authorities accept this leniency.
This also affects the status of marshmallows, which contain gelatin as one of their principal ingredients.
Insects and other invertebrates, reptiles, and amphibians
With four exceptions, all insects and other invertebrates (including those usually consumed as seafood), all reptiles, and all amphibians are considered 'loathsome', 'crawling' creatures, and are forbidden as treif (un-kosher). The exceptions are a type of locust native to the Arabian peninsula, encompassing four distinct species. The tradition for identifying which species of locust were and were not kosher has been lost among all Jews except the Jews of Yemen. (One hypothesis links these kosher insects to the Biblical manna which was provided as food for the Israelites in the desert).
Bee honey is Kosher, even though bees are not, because the honey is made by the bee, not a secretion of the bee[1].
In the summer of 2004, a controversy arose in New York City over the presence of copepods (tiny crustaceans) in the city water supply. While some authorities hold that these creatures are microscopic and therefore negligible, others note that they are almost the size of a small insect, such as a gnat, and far larger than a bacterium or other single-celled creature; and in fact can be detected by the naked eye. As of this writing a definitive ruling has not been produced as to whether copepods are kosher, but many families have begun using filters on their drinking and cooking water supply.
Kosher for Passover
During the 8 days of Passover there are additional restrictions on what foods may be eaten. Jewish law forbids Jews from eating any leavened product, and furthermore any product made from the so-called five species — conventionally viewed to be wheat, rye, barley, spelt, or oats (other than matzo, bread which has been ritually supervised from harvest to packaging to ensure that no leavening has occurred), which may have been inadvertently briefly moistened sometime after harvest, and begun the fermentation process which is key to leavening. Note that the inclusion of oats amongst the five species (Rashi) is contested; the Yerushalmi and Rambam have what we know as two-rowed barley. Rye is also contested, but is more closely related in appearance, properties and genetic affiliation. Ashkenazic Jews are restricted from eating rice and legumes during Passover, while Sephardic Jews are permitted rice and typically legumes as well. In order to prevent inadvertent consumption of hametz (chometz), foods which are not Kosher for Passover, observant Jews maintain an entirely separate set of dishes, cutlery, pots, pans, etc. for Passover which can never be allowed to contact such foods, much as they maintain separate sets of such items for milk and for meat. Before Passover, the house is rigorously cleaned to eliminate any remnants of hometz, no matter how small. Many Jews who can afford it even maintain a separate kitchen for use during Passover, to eliminate the need for such a laborious procedure in their regular kitchen, with the risk of overlooking some nook or cranny somewhere where a crumb has lodged. Karaite and Karaitic Jews, who reject the oral law and accept only Torah as binding law, commonly just avoid leavening during Passover, since the written law does not actually say that chometz or kitnyot cannot be eaten - it just says it cannot be leavened.
Wine and grape products
Traditionally, all wheat, all oil, and all products made from grape juice, including wine, are only considered kosher if produced by Jews. Those that are produced by non-Jews were considered treif. However, over time the prohibition against the consumption of wheat and oil products produced by non-Jews was dropped.
Nonetheless, the prohibition against gentile made grape products continued. This is derived from the religious use of wine by non-Jews (as well as Jews). In the past, an entire vineyard, or an entire pressing of the grapes would be dedicated to a god other than that of the Jews. If some of the product would find its way to be consumed by Jews, or even used for Kiddush, that would constitute inadvertent idolatry, or sacrilege. Such wine is known as Yayin Nesech, and may not be consumed, even if the wine was known not to have been used in a religious ceremony. Though modern wine is rarely used in a religious context, all wine from non-Jewish sources is still considered not Kosher.
One area of leniency is with pasteurized (or cooked) wine (mevushal in Hebrew), which is viewed as less suitable for religious practices, and is therefore subject to fewer prohibitions than un-cooked non-Jewish wine, primarily regarding the way it may be handled. However, even mevushal wine is forbidden without proper supervision.
As a consequence, many candies, drinks, and other foods are often not available in grape flavor. Many blends of fruit juices are also flavored with white grape juice, and are thus viewed as grape products.
Identification of kosher foods
Store-bought foods can be identified as kosher by the presence of a hechsher (plural hechsherim), a graphical symbol that indicates that the food has been certified as kosher by a rabbinical authority. (This might be an individual rabbi, but is more often a rabbinic organization.) The most common symbol in the United States is the "OU", a U inside a circle, standing for the Union of Orthodox Congregations. Many rabbis and organizations, however, have their own certification mark, and the other symbols are too numerous to list.
The hechsherim of certain authorities are sometimes considered invalid by certain other authorities. A solitary K is sometimes used as a symbol for kashrut, but as this symbol cannot be trademarked (the method by which other symbols are protected from misuse), it does not indicate anything other than the fact that the company producing the food considers it to be kosher.
It is not sufficient to read the list of ingredients on a product label in order to determine a food's kosher status, as many things are not included in this list, such as pan lubricants and release agents (which may be derived from lard), flavorings (even "natural flavorings" may be derived from non-kosher substances) and others. It can, however, identify obviously unkosher substances present in food.
Producers of food items and food additives can contact Jewish authorities to have their product deemed kosher. A committee will visit their facilities to inspect production methods and contents of the product and issue a certificate if everything is in order. In many product classes, constant supervision is required.
For various reasons, such as changes in manufacturing processes, products known to be kosher on one day might not be kosher tomorrow; a change in lubricating oil to one containing tallow, for instance. Often, these changes will be coordinated with the supervising rabbi or organization, to ensure that new packaging, which will not suggest any hechsher or kashrut, will be used for the new formulation. But in some cases, the supply of preprinted labels with the hechsher may still find its way onto the now non-kosher product; for such reasons, there is an active "grapevine" among the Jewish community, as well as newspapers and periodicals, identifying which products are now questionable, as well as products which have become kosher but whose labels have yet to carry the hechsher.
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